Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T17:30:57.993Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

An Holistic Developmental View of Neural and Psychological Processes: a Neurobiologic-Psychoanalytic Integration

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2018

H. A. Meyersburg
Affiliation:
Washington Psychoanalytic Institute and Clinical Professor of Psychiatry, George Washington University
R. M. Post
Affiliation:
Biological Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Building 10, Room 3S239, Bethesda, Maryland 20014, U.S.A.

Summary

The authors attempt to integrate several psychoanalytical and more recent neurobiological concepts regarding the development of the organism and emergence of psychopathology. They highlight the rough temporal correspondence of neurodevelopmental myelination cycles with stages of psychosocial development. They discuss concepts of critical periods and unique times of vulnerability to psychosocial insult and recurrence of critical stresses, gleaned from a multidisciplinary point of view, in relation to the occurrence of psychic aberrations. They suggest that it may be fruitful to explore further psychological constructs such as fixation and regression, as well as unconscious mental processes, in relation to their biochemical, physiological, and anatomical representations in the brain.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1979 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aghajanian, G. K. & Bloom, F. E. (1967) The formation of synaptic junctions in developing rat brain: a quantitative electron microscopic study. Brain Res., 6, 716–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arieti, S. (1974) Interpretation of Schizophrenia, pp 423–33. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Balazs, R., Patel, A. J. & Hajos, F. (1975) Factors affecting the biochemical maturation of the brain: effects of hormones during early life. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 1, 2536.Google Scholar
Benedek, T. (1952) Psychosexual Studies in Women. New York: Ronald Press.Google Scholar
Bland, R. C. (1977) Demographic aspects of functional psychoses in Canada. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 55, 369–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss: Volume I. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bresler, D. E., Diaz, J. & Ellison, C. (1976) Exaggerated avoidance of novel stimulation in rats partially recovered from central norepinephrine damage. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 4, 343–6.Google Scholar
Bunney, B. S. & Aghajanian, G. K. (1976) Dopamine and norepinephrine innervated cells in rat prefrontal cortex: pharmacological differentiation using microiontophoretic techniques. Life Sci., 19, 1783–92.Google Scholar
Caudill, W. & Weinstein, H. (1969) Maternal care and infant behaviour in Japan and America. Psychiatry, 32, 1243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chodoff, P. E. & Carpenter, W. T. (1975) Psychogenic theories of schizophrenia. In Schizophrenia: Biological and Psychological Perspectives (ed. Usdin, G.). New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Cools, A. R. (1977) Basic considerations on the role of concertedly working dopaminergic, GABA-ergic, cholinergic, and serotonergic echanisms within the neostriatum and nucleus accumbens in locomotor activity, stereotyped gnawing, turning and dyskinetic activities. In Cocaine and Other Stimulants (Advances in Behavioural Biology, Volume 21) (eds. Ellinwood, E. H. and Kilbey, M. M.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Coyle, J. T. & Axelrod, J. (1971) Development of uptake and storage of L-[3H Norepinephrine] in the rat brain. J. Neurochem., 18, 2061–75.Google Scholar
Coyle, J. T. & Axelrod, J. (1972) Tyrosine hydroxylase in the rat brain: developmental characteristics. J. Neurochem., 19, 1117–23.Google Scholar
Coyle, J. T. & Molliver, M. E. (1977) Major innervation of newborn rat cortex by monoaminergic neurons. Science, 196, 444–6.Google Scholar
Cummins, R. A., Livosey, P. J., Evans, J. G. M. & Walsh, R. N. (1977) A developmental theory of environmental enrichment. Science, 197, 692–4.Google Scholar
Dollard, J. & Miller, N. E. (1950) Personality and Psychotherapy: An Analysis in Terms of Learning, Thinking, and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Eichelman, B., Orenberg, E., Seagraves, E. & Barchas, J. (1976) Influence of social setting on the induction of brain cyclic AMP in response to electric shock in the rat. Nature, 263, 433–4.Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1963) Childhood and Society. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Flor-Henry, P. (1969) Psychosis and temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 10, 363–95.Google Scholar
Flor-Henry, P. (1974) Psychosis, neurosis, and epilepsy: developmental and gender-related effects and their aetiological contribution. Br. J. Psychiatry, 124, 144–50.Google Scholar
Freedman, D. X. (1975) Biology of the Major Psychoses, Volume 54. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1905) Three essays on sexuality: II. Infantile sexuality. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 7. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1913) Scientific interest in psychoanalysis: D. Psychoanalysis from a developmental point of view. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 13. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1914) On narcissism, an introduction. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 14. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1915) Instincts and vicissitudes. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 14. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1916a) Introductory lectures in psychoanalysis: XXI. Development of the libido. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 16. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1916b) Introductory lectures in psychoanalysis: XXII. Development and regression. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 16. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1926) Inhibition, symptom and anxiety. In The Complete Psychological Works (ed. Strachey, J.), Vol. 20. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Galin, D. (1974) Implications for psychiatry of left and right cerebral specialization: a neurophysiological context for unconscious processes. Arch. gen. Psychiatry, 31, 572–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gazzaniga, M. S. & Sperry, R. W. (1967) Language after section of the cerebral commissures. Brain, 90, 131–48.Google Scholar
Gellhorn, E. (1961) Prolegomena to a theory of the emotions. Perspect. Biol. Med., 4, 403–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giulian, G., McEwen, G. S. & Pohorecky, L. A. (1974) Altered development of the rat brain serotonergic system after disruptive neonatal experience. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 71, 4106–10.Google Scholar
Gloor, P. (1972) Temporal lobe epilepsy: its possible contribution of the understanding of the functional significance of the amygdala and of its interaction with neocortical-temporal mechanisms. In Neurobiology of the Amygdala (ed. Eleftheriou, B. E.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Goddard, G. V. & Douglas, R. M. (1975) Does the engram of kindling model the engram of normal long-term memory ? Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2, 385–94.Google Scholar
Goddard, G. V. McIntyre, D. C. & Leech, C. K. (1969) A permanent change in brain function resulting from daily electrical stimulation. Exp. Neurol., 25, 295330.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1971) Some aspects of mother-infant relationships in a group of wild chimpanzees. In The Origins of Human Social Relations (ed. Schaffer, H. R.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1971) Ontogenesis of sensory function in birds and mammals. In The Biopsychology of Development (eds. Tobach, E., Aronson, L. R. and Shaw, E.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Graham, F. K., Leavitt, L. A., Strock, B. D. & Brown, J. D. (1978) Precocious cardiac orienting in a human anencephalic infant. Science, 9, 322–4.Google Scholar
Greenough, W. T. (1976) Enduring brain effects of differential experience and training. In Neural Mechanisms of Learning and Memory (eds. Rosenzweig, M. R. and Bennett, E. L.). Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Grigg, K. (1977) Implications of left-right hemispheral specialization for psychoanalytic data collection and evaluation. (In press).Google Scholar
Grof, P., Angst, J. & Haines, T. (1974) The clinical course of depression: practical issues. In Symposia Medica, Hoechst, Volume 8: Classification and Prediction of Outcome of Depression (ed. Schattauer, F. K.). New York: Schattauer-Verlag, pp 141–8.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F. & Suomi, S. J. (1971) Social recovery by isolation-reared monkeys. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 68, 1534–8.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F. Dodsworth, R. O. & Harlow, M. K. (1965) Total social isolation in monkeys. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 54, 90–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlow, H. F., Plubell, P. E. & Baysinger, C. M. (1973) Induction of psychological death in rhesus monkeys. J. Autism Child Schizo., 3, 299307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartmann, H. (1958) Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation. New York: International University Press.Google Scholar
Heath, R. G. (1972) Electroencephalographic studies in isolation-raised monkeys with behavioural impairment. Dis. nerv. Syst., 33, 157–63.Google Scholar
Heath, R. G. Cox, A. W. & Lustick, L. S. (1974) Brain activity during emotional states. Am. J. Psychiatry, 131, 858–62.Google Scholar
Heller, A. (1972) Neuronal control of brain serotonin. Fed. Proc., 31, 8190.Google Scholar
Heller, A. (1975) Central monoaminergic function. In The Nervous System, Volume I: The Basic Neurosciences (ed. Tower, D. B.). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Henderson, N. D. (1970) Brain weight increase resulting from environmental enrichment: a directional dominance in mice. Science, 169, 776–8.Google Scholar
Himwich, W. A. (1971) Biochemical processes in behavioural development: biochemical processes of nervous system development. In The Biopsychology of Development (eds. Tobach, E., Aronson, L. R. and Shaw, E.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Himwich, W. A. (1975) Forging a link between basic and clinical research: developing brain. Biol. Psychiatry, 10, 125–39.Google Scholar
Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1968) Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex. J. Physiol, 195, 215–43.Google Scholar
Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1970) The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. J. Physiol., 206, 419–36.Google Scholar
Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1972) Laminar and columnar distribution of geniculo-cortical fibers in the macaque monkey. J. Comp. Neurol., 146, 421–50.Google Scholar
Imura, H., Yoshimi, T. & Ikekubo, K. (1971) Growth hormone secretion in a patient with deprivation dwarfism. Endocrinol Japon., 18, 310–4.Google Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1884) Remarks on evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. In Selected Writings, Volume II, 1932. London: Hodder and Stoughton.Google Scholar
Kasamatsu, T. & Pettigrew, J. D. (1976) Depletion of brain catecholamines: failure of ocular dominance shift after monocular occlusion in kittens. Science, 194, 206–9.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C., Des Rosiers, M. H., Sakurada, O., Shinohara, M., Reivich, M., Jehle, J. W. & Sokoloff, L. (1976) Metabolic mapping of the primary visual system of the monkey by means of the autoradiographic [14C] deoxyglucose technique. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 73, 4230–4.Google Scholar
Kety, S. S., Rosenthal, D., Wender, P. H. & Schulsinger, F. (1976) Studies based on a total sample of adopted individuals and their relatives: why they were necessary, what they demonstrated and failed to demonstrate. Schizo. Bull., 2, 413–28.Google Scholar
Knapp, P. H., Mushatt, C. & Nemetz, S. J. (1966) Collection and utilization of data in a psychoanalytic psychosomatic study. In Methods of Research in Psychotherapy (eds. Gottschalk, L. A. and Auerbach, A. H.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Knapp, P. H., Mushatt, C. & Nemetz, S. J., Constantine, H. & Friedman, S. (1970) The context of reported asthma during psychoanalysis. Psychosom. Med., 32, 167–88.Google Scholar
Kostrzewa, R. M. & Garey, R. E. (1976) Effects of 6-hydroxydopa on noradrenergic neurons in developing rat brain. J. Pharmacol. exp. Ther., 197, 105–18.Google Scholar
Krecek, J. (1971) The theory of critical developmental periods and postnatal development of endocrine functions. In The Biopsychology of Development (eds. Tobach, E., Aronson, L. R. and Shaw, E.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lauder, J. M. & Bloom, F. E. (1974) Ontogeny of monoamine neurons in the locus ceruleus, raphe nuclei and substantia nigra of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol., 155, 469–82.Google Scholar
Lidz, T. (1976) Commentary on ‘A critical review of recent adoption, twin, and family studies of schizophrenia: behavioural genetics perspectives’. Schizo. Bull., 2, 402–12.Google Scholar
Ludwig, A. O., Murawski, B. J. & Sturgis, S. H. (1969) Psychosomatic Aspects of Gynecologic Disorders. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Commonwealth Fund.Google Scholar
Luria, A. R. (1970) Higher Cortical Functions in Man. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
MacLean, P. D. (1958) The limbic system with respect to self-preservation and the preservation of the species. J. nerv. ment. Dis., 127, 111.Google Scholar
MacLean, P. D. (1973) A triune concept of the brain and behaviour. In The Clarence M. Hicks Memorial Lectures, 1969 (eds. Boag, T. J. and Campbell, D.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
McIntyre, D. C. (1978) Kindling and memory: the adrenal system and the bisected brain. In Limbic Mechanisms: The Continuing Evolution of the Limbic System Concept (eds. Livingston, K. and Hornykiewicz, O.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
McKinney, W. T. (1974) Primate social isolation, psychiatric implications. Arch. gen. Psychiatry, 31, 422–6.Google Scholar
McKinney, W. T., Suomi, S. J. & Harlow, H. F. (1972a) Repetitive peer separation of juvenile-age rhesus monkeys. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 27, 200–3.Google Scholar
McKinney, W. T., Suomi, S. J. & Harlow, H. F. (1972b) Vertical-chamber confinement of juvenile-age rhesus monkeys. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 26, 223–8.Google Scholar
McLean, J. H., Kostrzewa, R. M. & May, J. G. (1976) Behavioural and biochemical effects of neonatal treatment of rats with 6-hydroxydopa. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 4, 601–7.Google Scholar
Maeda, T., Tohyama, M. & Shimizu, N. (1974) Modification of postnatal development of neocortex in rat brain with experimental deprivation of locus coeruleus. Brain Res., 70, 515–20.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. (1968) Human Symbiosis and the Vicissitudes of Individuation, Volume I. New York: International University Press.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. Pine, F. & Bergman, A. (1975) The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis and Individuation. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Mason, J. W. (1959) Psychologic influences in the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Recent Prog. Horm. Res., 15, 345.Google Scholar
Mason, J. W. (1970) Psychoendocrine mechanisms. In The American Handbook of Psychiatry, Volume 4 (ed. Arieti, S.). New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Mason, J. W., Brady, J. V. & Sidman, M. (1957) Plasma 17-Hydroxycorticosteroid levels and conditioned behaviour in the rhesus monkey. Endocrinology, 60, 741–52.Google Scholar
Miller, N. E. (1972) Interactions between learned and physical factors in mental illness. Semin. Psychiatry, 4, 239–54.Google Scholar
Miller, N. E. & Weiss, J. M. (1969) Effects of somatic or visceral responses to punishment. In Punishment and Aversive Behaviour (eds. Campbell, B. A. and Church, R. M.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Miller, R. E., Caul, W. F. & Mirsky, I. A. (1967) Communication of affects between feral and socially isolated monkeys. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 7, 231–9.Google Scholar
Miller, R. E., Caul, W. F. & Mirsky, I. A. (1971) Patterns of eating and drinking in socially isolated rhesus monkeys. Physiol. Behav., 7, 127–34.Google Scholar
Moskovitz, C., Moses, H. & Klawans, H. L. (1978) Levodopa-induced psychosis: a kindling phenomenon. Am. J. Psychiatry, 135, 669–75.Google Scholar
Nishikawa, T., Kajiwara, Y., Kono, Y., Sano, T., Nagasaki, N. & Tanaka, M. (1976) Different effect of social isolation on the levels of brain monoamines in post-weaning and young adult rats. Folia Psychiatr. Neurol. Jpn., 30, 5763.Google Scholar
Nomura, Y., Naitoh, F. & Segawa, T. (1976) Regional changes in monoamine content and uptake of the rat brain during postnatal development. Brain Res., 101, 305–15.Google Scholar
Papez, J. W. (1937) A proposed mechanism of emotion. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 38, 725–43.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1936) La Naissance de l'Intelligence. Neuchâtel & Paris: Delachaux.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1952) Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York: International University Press.Google Scholar
Piaget, J., Inhelder, B. & Szeminska, A. (1960) Child's Conception of Geometry. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Pinel, J. P. J. & Van Oot, P. H. (1975) Generality of the kindling phenomenon: some clinical implications. Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2, 467–75.Google Scholar
Polyakov, G. I. (1967) in Luria, R. A. (1970) Higher Cortical Functions in Man, p 39. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Post, R. M. (1977) Approaches to rapidly cycling manic-depressive illness. In Animal Models in Psychiatry and Neurology (eds. Hanin, I. and Usdin, E.). Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Post, R. M. & Kopanda, R. T. (1976) Cocaine, kindling, and psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry, 133, 627–34.Google Scholar
Post, R. M. & Kopanda, R. T. & Black, K. E. (1976) Progressive effects of cocaine on behaviour and central amine metabolism in rhesus monkeys: relationship to kindling and psychosis. Biol. Psychiatry, 11, 403–19.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Squillace, K. M. & Pert, A. (1978) Rhythmic oscillations in amygdala excitability during kindling. Life Sci., 22, 717–26.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Stoddard, F. J., Gillin, J. C., Buchsbaum, M., Runkle, D. C., Black, K. E. & Bunney, W. R. Jr. (1977) Slow and rapid alterations in motor activity, sleep, and biochemistry in a cycling manic-depressive patient. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 34, 470–7.Google Scholar
Powell, G. F., Brasel, J. A. & Buzzard, R. M. (1967) Emotional deprivation and growth retardation simulating idiopathic hypopituitatism. N. Engl. J. Med., 276, 1271–8.Google Scholar
Pribram, K. H. (1961) Languages of the Brain: Experimental Paradoxes and Principles in Neuropsychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Racine, R. J. (1972a) Modification of seizure activity by electrical stimulation: I. After-discharge threshold. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 32, 269–79.Google Scholar
Racine, R. J. (1972b) Modification of seizure activity by electrical stimulation: II. Motor seizure. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 32, 281–94.Google Scholar
Reiss, D. (1974) Personal communication. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1971) Effects of environment on development of brain and of behaviour. In The Biopsychology of Development (eds. Tobach, E., Aronson, L. R. and Shaw, E.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sachar, E. J., Mason, J. W., Kolmer, H. S. & Artiss, K. L. (1963) Psychoendocrine aspects of acute schizophrenic reactions. Psychosom. Med., 25, 510–37.Google Scholar
Sachar, E. J., MacKenzie, J. M., Binstock, W. A. & Mack, J. E. (1967) Corticosteroid responses to psychotherapy of depression: I. Evaluations during confrontation of loss. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 16, 461–70.Google Scholar
Sachar, E. J., MacKenzie, J. M., Binstock, W. A. & Mack, J. E. (1968) Corticosteroid responses to psychotherapy of depression: II. Further clinical and physiological implications. Psychosom. Med., 30, 2344.Google Scholar
Sachs, C. & Jonsson, G. (1975) Effects of 6-hydroxydopamine on central noradrenaline neurons during ontogeny. Brain Res., 99, 277–91.Google Scholar
Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Morgan, M. J. & Iversen, S. D. (1975) The effects of psychomotor stimulants on stereotypy and locomotor activity in socially-deprived and control rats. Brain Res., 84, 195205.Google Scholar
Segal, M. & Bloom, F. E. (1976a) The action of norepinephrine in the rat hippocampus: III. Hippocampal cellular responses to locus coeruleus stimulation in the awake rat. Brain Res., 107, 499611.Google Scholar
Segal, M. & Bloom, F. E. (1976b) The action of norepinephrine in the rat hippocampus: IV. The effects of locus coeruleus on evoked hippocampal unit activity. Brain Res., 107, 513–25.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co.Google Scholar
Shaywitz, B. A., Klopper, J. H., Yager, R. D. & Gordon, J. W. (1976) Paradoxical response to amphetamine in developing rats treated with 6-hydroxydopamine. Nature, 261, 153–4.Google Scholar
Sherrington, C. S. (1906) Integrative Action of the Nervous System, 1961. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sperry, R. W. (1969) A modified concept of consciousness. Psychol. Rev., 76, 532636.Google Scholar
Sperry, R. W., Gazzaniga, M. S. & Bogen, J. E. (1969) Inter-hemispheric relationships: the neocortical commissures and syndromes of hemispheric disconnection. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Volume 4 (eds. Vinken, P. J. and Bruyn, E. W.). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Spitz, R. (1945) Hospitalism. Psychoanal. Study Child., 1, 53–4.Google Scholar
Spitz, R. (1946) Anaclitic depression. Psychoanal. Study Child., 2, 313–42.Google Scholar
Spitz, R. (1965) First Tear of Life. New York: International University Press.Google Scholar
Stevens, J. R. (1972) An anatomy of schizophrenia? Arch. gen. Psychiatry, 29, 177–89.Google Scholar
Stoddard, F. J., Post, R. M. & Bunney, W. E. Jr. (1977) Slow and rapid psychobiological alterations in a manic-depressive patient: clinical phenomenology. Br. J. Psychiatry, 130, 72–8.Google Scholar
Suomi, S. J., Harlow, H. F. & Domek, C. J. (1970) Effect of repetitive infant-infant separation of young monkeys. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 76, 161–71.Google Scholar
Suomi, S. J., Seaman, S. F., Lewis, J. K., Delizio, R. D. & McKinney, W. T. (1977) Effects of imipramine treatment of separation-induced social disorders in rhesus monkey. Arch. gen. Psychiatry, 35, 321–5.Google Scholar
Taylor, A. N., Lorenz, R. J., Turner, B. B., Ronnekleiv, O. F., Casady, R. L. & Branch, B. J. (1976) Factors influencing pituitary-adrenal rhythmicity: its ontogeny and circadian variations in stress responsiveness. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 1, 291301.Google Scholar
Thierry, A. M., Tassin, J. P., Blanc, G. & Glowinski, J. (1976) Selective activation of the mesocortical DA system by stress. Nature, 263, 242–4.Google Scholar
Vernadakis, A. & Gibson, A. D. (1974) Role of neurotransmitter substances in neural growth. Neurotransmitters and Neural Growth, pp 6576.Google Scholar
Wada, J. A. & Sato, M. (1974) Generalized convulsive seizures induced by daily electrical stimulation of the amygdala in cats. Neurology, 24, 565–74.Google Scholar
Wada, J. A. & Sato, M. & Corcoran, M. E. (1974) Persistent seizure susceptibility and recurrent spontaneous seizures in kindled cats. Epilepsia, 15, 465–78.Google Scholar
Welch, B. L. & Welch, A. S. (1969) Fighting: preferential lowering of norepinephrine and dopamine in the brainstem concomitant with a depletion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. Commun. Behav. Biology, 3, 125–30.Google Scholar
Wiesel, T. N., Hubel, D. H. & Lam, D. M. K. (1974) Autoradiographic demonstration of ocular dominance columns in the monkey striate cortex by means of transneuronal transport. Brain Res., 79, 273–9.Google Scholar
Winokur, G., Clayton, P. J. & Reich, T. (eds.) (1969) Manic Depressive Illness. St Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.Google Scholar
Wynne, L. C., Singer, M. T. & Toohey, M. (1976) Communication of the adoptive parents of schizophrenics. In Schizophrenia 75: Psychotherapy, Family Studies, Research (eds. Jorstad, J. and Ugelstad, E.). Oslo: University of Oslo Press.Google Scholar
Yakovlev, P. I. & Lecours, A. R. (1967) The myelogenic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life (ed. Minkowski, A.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co.Google Scholar
Young, L. D., Suomi, S. J., Harlow, H. F. & McKinney, W. T. (1973) Early stress and later response to separation in rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Psychiatry, 130, 400–5.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.